阅读答案及翻译原文第1篇鲁肃代周瑜，当之陆口，过蒙屯下。肃意尚轻蒙，或说肃曰：“吕将军功名日显，不可以故意待也，君宜顾之。”遂往诣蒙。酒酣，蒙问肃曰：“君受重任，与关羽为邻，将何计略，以备不虞？”肃造下面是小编为大家整理的阅读答案及翻译原文热门6篇,供大家参考。
阅读答案及翻译原文 第1篇
鲁肃代周瑜，当之陆口，过蒙屯下。肃意尚轻蒙，或说肃曰：“吕将军功名日显，不可以故意待也，君宜顾之。”遂往诣蒙。酒酣，蒙问肃曰：“君受重任，与关羽为邻，将何计略，以备不虞？”肃造次应曰：“临时施宜。”蒙曰：“今东西虽为一家，而关羽实熊虎也，计安可不豫定？”因为肃画五策。肃于是越席就之，拊其背曰：“吕子明，吾不知卿才略所及乃至于此也。”
与课文的相同点：本文也是介绍鲁肃对吕蒙的才华进步的赞叹。本文选自《三国志·吴志·吕蒙传》，也是历史传记故事。
1.解释文中加点的字。
轻：
或：
故：
遂：
安：
画：
2.翻译句子。
（1）君受重任，与关羽为邻，将何计略，以备不虞？
（2）吾不知卿才略所及乃至于此也。
3.吕子明的学问好，在文中是通过鲁肃的 表现出来的，而鲁肃的这一举动，也说明鲁肃是一个不 的人，这是一个好领导必须具备的品质。
参考答案：
1.轻视人 有人 原来的 就 怎么 筹划
2.(1)您接受重任，和关羽相邻，准备了哪些计策谋略，来预备不能预料的.事发生？(2)我不知道您的才干谋略已经达到了这一高度啊。
3.赞美 嫉贤妒能
翻译：
鲁肃临时代理周瑜的事务时，正当去陆口时，路过吕蒙屯兵的地方。当时鲁肃还是轻视吕蒙的，传闻鲁肃曾对邓当说：“吕蒙将军的功名一天天增长，不能拿以前的眼光看待他了，您应该重视这个事情。”鲁肃随即去拜访吕蒙。酒喝得正畅快时，吕蒙问鲁肃：“您担负重任以抵御关羽方面军，打算用什么方法应付突然发生的袭击？”鲁肃轻率地说：“临时想办法就行。”吕蒙说：“现在东吴和西蜀是暂时联盟，关羽毕竟对我们有威胁，怎能不提早做好应对的打算呢？”于是就这个问题，为鲁肃想了五种应对的方法。鲁肃又佩服又感激，离开席子，坐在吕蒙旁边，手抚着吕蒙的背，亲切地说：“吕蒙，我不知道你的才华谋略竟然到了如此的境地！”
阅读答案及翻译原文 第2篇
参考答案：古代罗马和希腊
罗马具有一种希腊和其他任何不论是古代的还是现在的文明都不具备的凝聚力。罗马墙上的石块是靠设计的规整和特别有力的水泥而被固定在一起，与此相同，罗马帝国的各个部分也因物理的、组织的和精神的束缚而组成了一个坚若磐石的整体。物理的束缚包括驻扎在每个省的戍卫军组成的网络和连通每个省与罗马的用石头铺成的道路网络。组织上的束缚则基于法律和行政的一般原则，以及遍布各地、统一行动的军政府。精神上的控制则建立在恐惧和惩罚上--毫无疑问，任何人或任何事，只要威胁到罗马的权威，都终将被摧毁。
罗马人对统一和团结的执著可能源自于罗马早期的发展模式。希腊是从二十几个分散的城邦发展而来，然而罗马则是从单个组织发展而来。希腊沿着地中海航线扩张，然而罗马帝国则通过领土的占领而壮大。当然，它们的对比也不是那么的绝对：在亚历山大大帝时期，希腊找到了他们整个历史中最大的领地征服者;罗马人虽曾一度迁移到意大利之外，但他们却没有忘记海洋的力量。然而，他们之间本质的区别是不容否认的。希腊世界的关键是强大的船队，而罗马帝国的关键则是他们行进的部队。希腊人死守着海洋，罗马人则死守着土地。希腊人是天生的水手，罗马人则是陆上强兵。
毫无疑问的是，为了解释罗马现象，人们应该极大地强调他们的几乎是本能的领土观念。罗马人的天性就在于对领土的组织、扩张和防御。完全也可能是Latium平原--拉丁人最初建立罗马的地方，造就了罗马人陆地定居、陆地财产、陆地经济、陆地行政以及以陆地基础的社会习惯和技巧。在此基础上也产生了罗马人的军事组织和政府管理的才能，。反过来，对土地以及稳定乡村生活的深深的依恋孕育了罗马人的品格：gravitas，一种责任感;peitas，对家庭和国家的牺牲精神;以及iustitia，一种对自然秩序的使命。
现在人们对罗马的态度各异，从无限的崇尚到彻底的反感。经常有权威的崇拜者，尤其是在历史学家中，不由自主地推崇强大，他们对罗马权力的欣赏远胜于对希腊狡黠的欣赏。与此同时，有一种固化的观念厌恶罗马。对于很多人而言，罗马至多不过是对希腊更大规模的模仿和延续，希腊文明拥有质量，罗马则仅仅拥有数量。希腊是发明者，而罗马则是研究和发展的分支。这些实际上是一些高智商罗马人的观点。"如果希腊人像我们一样轻视创新?"Horace 在他的信件中问道"那么有什么古时候的作品能现存于世呢?"
罗马的确欠着希腊无数的债务。罗马人吸收了希腊人的宗教和伦理哲学。在文学上，希腊作家被下意识地当作他们拉丁后裔的模范。毋庸置疑的是，一个受过教育的罗马人一定会讲流利的希腊语。在推理哲学和科学上，罗马人实际上没有超过前期希腊的成就。
然而如果认为罗马是希腊-罗马文化的晚辈那就错了。罗马的天才们突破了新的领域-尤其是在法律、军队的组织、管理和工程上。而且，由罗马国家内部产生的压力促使文学和艺术的造诣达到最高水平。所以很多罗马的高级军官和政治家们都是高素质的作家。
阅读答案及翻译原文 第3篇
剑桥雅思系列真题是剑桥大学考试委员会外语考试部出版各类考试真题的唯一官方出版社出版的权威教材，书中包含最新的雅思全真试题资料，是各类雅思考生备考过程中必不可少的参考书。非常适合学生自学的习题解答和听力录音文本。
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1
Johnson’s Dictionary
For the century before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English Dr Johnson provided the
There had, of course, been dictionaries in the past, the first of these being a little book of some 120 pages, compiled by a certain Robert Cawdray, published in 1604 under the title A Table Alphabeticall ‘of hard usuall English wordes’. Like the various dictionaries that came after it during the seventeenth century, Cawdray’s tended to concentrate on ‘scholarly’ words; one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine
Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos, the rise of dictionaries is associated with the rise of the English middle class, who were anxious to define and circumscribe the various worlds to conquer — lexical as well as social and it is highly appropriate that Dr Samuel Johnson, the very model of an eighteenth-century literary man, as famous in his own time as in ours, should have published his Dictionary at the very beginning of the heyday of the middle
Johnson was a poet and critic who raised common sense to the heights of His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely Up until his time, the task of producing a dictionary on such a large scale had seemed impossible without the establishment of an academy to make decisions about right and wrong Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language; he would write a dictionary himself and he would do it Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holbom Bar on 18 June was to be paid ￡ in instalments, and from this he took money to rent Gough Square, in which he set up his ‘dictionary workshop’.
James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as ‘fitted up like a counting house’ with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing Johnson himself was stationed on a rickety chair at an ‘old crazy deal table’ surrounded by a chaos of borrowed He was also helped by six assistants, two of whom died whilst the Dictionary was still in
The work was immense; filling about eighty large notebooks (and without a library to hand), Johnson wrote the definitions of over 40,000 words, and illustrated their many meanings with some 114,000 quotations drawn from English writing on every subject, from the Elizabethans to his own He did not expect to achieve complete Working to a deadline, he had to draw on the best of all previous dictionaries, and to make his work one of heroic In fact, it was very much Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law — according to After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a
After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April It was instantly recognised as a landmark throughout ‘This very noble work,’ wrote the leading Italian lexicographer, ‘will be a perpetual monument of Fame to the Author, an Honour to his own Country in particular, and a general Benefit to the republic of Letters throughout Europe" The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English
Johnson had worked for nine years, ‘with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow’. For all its faults and eccentricities his two-volume work is a masterpiece and a landmark, in his own words, ‘setting the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the significations of English words’. It is the cornerstone of Standard English an achievement which, in James Boswell’s words ‘conferred stability on the language of his ’
The Dictionary, together with his other writing, made Johnson famous and so well esteemed that his friends were able to prevail upon King George Ⅲ to offer him a From then on, he was to become the Johnson of
Questions 1-3
Choose THREE letters
Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer
NB Your answers may be given in any
Which THREE of the following statements are true of Johnson’s Dictionary?
A It avoided all scholarly
B It was the only English dictionary in general use for 200
C It was famous because of the large number of people
D It focused mainly on language from contemporary
E There was a time limit for its
F It ignored work done by previous dictionary
G It took into account subtleties of
H Its definitions were famous for their
Questions 4-7
Complete the
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each
Write your answers in boxes 4-7 on your answer
In 1764 Dr Johnson accepted the contract to produce a Having rented a garret, he took on a number of 4…………, who stood at a long central Johnson did not have a 5………… available to him, but eventually produced definitions of in excess of 40,000 words written down in 80 large On publications, the Dictionary was immediately hailed in many European countries as a According to his biographer, James Boswell, Johnson’s principal achievement was to bring 6……… to the English As a reward for his hard work, he was granted a 7………by the
Questions 8-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
8 The growing importance of the middle classes led to an increased demand for
9 Johnson has become more well known since his
10 Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several
11 Johnson set up an academy to help with the writing of his
12 Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its
13 Not all of the assistants survived to see the publication of the
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2
Nature or Nurture?
A A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of life for their willingness to obey instructions given by a ‘leader’ in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to Specifically Milgram told each volunteer ‘teacher-subject’ that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils’ ability to
B Milgram’s experimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from ‘15 volts of electricity (slight shock)’ to ‘450 volts (danger — severe shock)’ in steps of 15 volts The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong The supposed ‘pupil’ was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the
C As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the In these situations, Milgram calmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil’s cries for mercy and carry on with the If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the His final argument was ‘you have no other You must go on’. What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the
D Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450
E What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit in repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one How can we possibly account for this vast discrepancy between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative ‘teachers’ actually do in the laboratory of real life?
F One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teache-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal
G An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects’ actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried As Milgram himself pointed out, ‘Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society — the pursuit of scientific The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation appears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this ’
H Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of
I Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authority The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology — to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all
Questions 14-19
Reading Passage 2 has nine paragraphs,
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 14-19 on your answer
14 a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects’ behaviour
15 the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment
16 the identity of the pupils
17 the expected statistical outcome
18 the general aim of sociobiological study
19 the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continue
Questions 20-22
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or
Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer
20 The teacher-subjects were told that were testing whether
A a 450-volt shock was
B punishment helps
C the pupils were
D they were suited to
21 The teacher-subjects were instructed to
A stop when a pupil asked them
B denounce pupils who made
C reduce the shock level after a correct
D give punishment according to a
22 Before the experiment took place the psychiatrists
A believed that a shock of 150 volts was too
B failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to
C underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental
D thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450
Questions 23-26
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
23 Several of the subjects were psychology students at Yale
24 Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behaviour could be explained as a positive survival
25 In a sociological explanation, personal values are more powerful than
26 Milgram’s experiment solves an important question in
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3
The Truth about the Environment
For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more
But a quick look at the facts shows a different First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book ‘The Limits to Growth’ was published in 1972 by a group of Second, more food is now produced per head of the world’s population than at any time in Fewer people are Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about % of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient — associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating One form of pollution — the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming — does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to
Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and
One is the lopsidedness built into scientific Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the
Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass They also need to keep the money rolling Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: ‘Two thirds of the world’s forests lost ’ The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.
Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than
A third source of confusion is the attitude of the People are clearly more curious about bad news than Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public That, however, can lead to significant distortions of An example was America’s encounter with El Nino in 1997 and This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US$19 These came from higher winter temperatures (which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).
The fourth factor is poor individual People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of Yet, even if America’s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12,000th of the area of the entire United
So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3℃ in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000
Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses clearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 20XX would be postponed to
So this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the world’s single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, and prevent half a billion people from becoming seriously
It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the It may be costly to be overly optimistic — but more costly still to be too
Questions 27-32
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the writer’s claims
NO if the statement contradicts the writer’s clams
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
27 Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world for a number of reasons
28 Data on the Earth’s natural resources has only been collected since
29 The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent
30 Extinct species are being replaced by new
31 Some pollution problems have been correctly linked to
32 It would be best to attempt to slow down economic
Questions 33-37
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or
Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer
33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4?
A the need to produce results
B the lack of financial support
C the selection of areas to research
D the desire to solve every research problem
34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate how
A influential the mass media can
B effective environmental groups can
C the mass media can help groups raise
D environmental groups can exaggerate their
34 What is the writer’s main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6?
A Some are more active than
B Some are better organised than
C Some receive more criticism than
D Some support more important issues than
35 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended to
A educate
B meet their readers’
C encourage feedback from
D mislead
36 What does the writer say about America’s waste problem?
A It will increase in line with population
B It is not as important as we have been led to
C It has been reduced through public awareness of the
D It is only significant in certain areas of the
Questions 38-40
Complete the summary with the list of words A-I
Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 38-40 on your answer
GLOBAL WARMING
The writer admits that global warming is a 38…………….challenge, but says that it will not have a catastrophic impact on our future, if we deal with it in the 39…………… If we try to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases, he believes that it would only have a minimal impact on rising He feels it would be better to spend money on the more 40………… health problem of providing the world’s population with clean drinking
A unrealistic B agreed C expensive D right
E long-term F usual G surprising H personal
I urgent
阅读答案及翻译原文 第4篇
Passage1
参考译文
Adults and children are frequently confronted with statements about the alarming rate of loss of tropical For example, one graphic illustration to which children might readily relate is the estimate that rainforests are being destroyed at a rate equivalent to one thousand football fields every forty minutes — about the duration of a normal classroom In the face of the frequent and often vivid media coverage, it is likely that children will have formed ideas about rainforests — what and where they are, why they are important, what endangers them — independent of any formal It is also possible that some of these ideas will be
无论大人还是孩子都经常会遇到这样的报道，那就是热带雨林正在以惊人的速度消失。打个比方，孩子们很容易就能理解这样一个图例，即平均每四十分钟，也就是一节课的时间内，世界上就会有相当于一千个足球场大小的热带雨林遭到破坏。面对媒体频繁且生动的报道，也许不需要任何正规的教育，孩子们就能够形成一系列有关热带雨林的观点：比如说雨林是什么，位置在哪里，为什么如此重要，又是什么在威胁它们等等。当然，这些观点也很有可能是错的。
Many studies have shown that children harbour misconceptions about ‘pure’, curriculum These misconceptions do not remain isolated but become incorporated into a multifaceted, but organised, conceptual framework, making it and the component ideas, some of which are erroneous, more robust but also accessible to These ideas may be developed by children absorbing ideas through the popular Sometimes this information may be It seems schools may not be providing an opportunity for children to re-express their ideas and so have them tested and refined by teachers and their
许多研究表明孩子们对于在学校里学到的科学知识心存误解。这些误解不是孤立存在的，而是组成了一个尽管多层面却十分有条理的概念体系，这一点使得该体系本身及其所有的组成观点更加难以攻破，有些观点本身甚至就是错误的，但是也正是这样，它们反而更容易被改动。这些错误观点正是由于孩子们从大众煤体上吸收了信息而形成的。有时连这些信息本身都是错误的。学校似乎也没能够给们提供一个再度阐述自己观点的机会，因此宠师及其他学生也不能帮助其检验及纠正这种错误观点。
Despite the extensive coverage in the popular media of the destruction of rainforests, little formal information is available about children’s ideas in this The aim of the present study is to start to provide such information, to help teachers design their educational strategies to build upon correct ideas and to displace misconceptions and to plan programmes in environmental studies in their
尽管媒体对于热带雨林所遭受的破坏做了大量的报道，但是有关孩子相关观点的信息却少之又少。所以，目前这项研究的目的就是要给教师提供这样的信息来帮助他们设计自己的教学策略，以便帮助学生构筑正确的观点，置换他们的错误概念，并在学校中展开环保研究项目。
The study surveys children’s scientific knowledge and attitudes to Secondary school children were asked to complete a questionnaire containing five open-form The most frequent responses to the first question were descriptions which are self-evident from the term ‘rainforest’. Some children described them as damp, wet or The second question concerned the geographical location of The commonest responses were continents or countries: Africa (given by 43% of children), South America (30%), Brazil (25%). Some children also gave more general locations, such as being near the
该项研究调査了孩子有关热带雨林的科学知识以及态度。研究要求一些中学生填写一份包含了五个简答题的调査表。对于第一个问题，最常见的解答就来自“热带雨林”这一名称所附带的不言自明的含义。有些孩子把雨林描述成一个又潮又湿或闷热的地方。第二个问题是关于雨林的地理位置的，大多数答案都提到了国名或洲名：百分之四十三的孩子写了非洲，百分之三十写了美洲;还有百分之二十五的人认为热带雨林主要分布在巴西。有些孩子给出了如“赤道附近”这样更为宽泛的答案。
Responses to question three concerned the importance of The dominant idea, raised by 64% of the pupils, was that rainforests provide animals with Fewer students responded that rainforests provide plant habitats, and even fewer mentioned the indigenous populations of More girls (70%) than boys (60%) raised the idea of rainforest as animal
第三道题目问及了热带雨林的重要性。百分之六十四的学生认为雨林为动物提供了栖身之所。较少的学生回答说雨林是植物的生长地。更少的学生提到了雨林中的土著居民。其中，有百分之七十的女孩子认为雨林是动物的家，而男孩子中只有百分之六十的人执此观点。
Similarly, but at a lower level, more girls (13%) than boys (5%) said that rainforests provided human These observations are generally consistent with our previous studies of pupils’ views about the use and conservation of rainforests, in which girls were shown to be more sympathetic to animals and expressed views which seem to place an intrinsic value on non-human animal
相似的是，有百分之十三的女生认为热带雨林为人类提供了居所，而男生中有此想法的人只占百分之五。这些观点与先前就学生对热带雨林的开发及保护状况所做的研究的结果基本一致，该结果表明女生更容易表现出对小动物的同情，其观点也更容易将内在价值观基于动物而非人类生命上。
The fourth question concerned the causes of the destruction of Perhaps encouragingly, more than half of the pupils (59%) identified that it is human activities which are destroying rainforests, some personalising the responsibility by the use of terms such as ‘we are’. About 18% of the pupils referred specifically to logging
第四个问题问到了热带雨林遭到破坏的原因。值得庆幸的是，过半的学生(百分之五十九)都认为是人类的行为导致了这一破坏，有人甚至用“我们”这样的字眼将问题与自身联系起来。大概有百分之十八的学生将这一破坏归咎于滥砍滥伐。
One misconception, expressed by some 10% of the pupils, was that acid rain is responsible for rainforest destruction; a similar proportion said that pollution is destroying Here, children are confusing rainforest destruction with damage to the forests of Western Europe by these While two fifths of the students provided the information that the rainforests provide oxygen, in some cases this response also embraced the misconception that rainforest destruction would reduce atmospheric oxygen, making the atmosphere incompatible with human life on
百分之十的学生错误地认为是酸雨导致了雨林的破坏，还有百分之十的学生觉得污染才是罪魁祸首。看来学生们是将热带雨林所受的破坏与上述因素对西欧森林的毁坏混为一谈了。百分之四十的学生认为热带雨林为人们提供了氧气，在某种程度上，这样的答案也包含着一个误解，那就是认为热带雨林的消失会减少大气中氧气的含量，最终导致地球上的大气不再适合人类呼吸。
In answer to the final question about the importance of rainforest conservation, the majority of children simply said that we need rainforests to Only a few of the pupils (6%) mentioned that rainforest destruction may contribute to global This is surprising considering the high level of media coverage on this Some children expressed the idea that the conservation of rainforests is not
在被问及雨林保护的重要性时，大部分学生只是认为人类离开雨林就无法生存。只有寥寥百分之六的人提到热带雨林的消失会导致全球变暖。鉴于媒体对这个问题长篇累牍的报道，这样的结果真是有点出人意料。还有些学生认为保不保护雨林根本无关紧要。
The results of this study suggest that certain ideas predominate in the thinking of children about Pupils’ responses indicate some misconceptions in basic scientific knowledge of rainforests’ ecosystems such as their ideas about rainforests as habitats for animals, plants and humans and the relationship between climatic change and destruction of
研究结果表明，在学生们对雨林的观点中，某些观点明显占上风。在有些问题上，比如说热带雨林是植物、动物及人类的栖息地以及天气变化与雨林破坏之间的关系等，学生们的回答又表明了他们在一些基本科学知识上的误区。
Pupils did not volunteer ideas that suggested that they appreciated the complexity of causes of rainforest In other words, they gave no indication of an appreciation of either the range of ways in which rainforests are important or the complex social, economic and political factors which drive the activities which are destroying the One encouragement is that the results of similar studies about other environmental issues suggest that older children seem to acquire the ability to appreciate, value and evaluate conflicting Environmental education offers an arena in which these skills can be developed, which is essential for these children as future
学生们给出的答案并不能够表明他们了解热带雨林所遭受破坏的原因的复杂性。换言之，没有任何迹象表明他们了解热带雨林对人类来讲到底如何重要以及那些破坏行为背后所潜藏的复杂社会、经济及政治因素。然而，值得欣慰的是，其他类似环保研究的结果表明，大孩子们已经具备了鉴赏、理解以及评价矛盾观点的能力。而环保教育正是为这些能力的养成提供舞台，这一点对于孩子们成为未来的政策制定者是至关重要的。
Passage2
参考译文
What Do Whales Feel?
An examination of the functioning of the senses in cetaceans, the group of mammals comprising whales, dolphins and porpoises
鲸鱼的感官
鲸目动物(包括鲸、海豚、鼠海豚等晡乳动物)的感官功能测试
Some of the senses that we and other terrestrial mammals take for granted are either reduced or absent in cetaceans or fail to function well in For example, it appears from their brain structure that toothed species are unable to Baleen species, on the other hand, appear to have some related brain structures but it is not known whether these are It has been speculated that, as the blowholes evolved and migrated to the top of the head, the neural pathways serving sense of smell may have been nearly all Similarly, although at least some cetaceans have taste buds, the nerves serving these have degenerated or are
对我们人类以及其他的陆地哺乳动物来说，有些感官是与生俱来的，然而对于鲸鱼来讲，这些功能要么已经衰退或彻底消失，要么就无法在水中正常发挥作用。比如说从齿鲸的大脑结构来看，它们是嗅不到气味的;而须鲸虽然有与嗅觉相关的脑部结构，可是我们却无法判断这些结构是否起作用。据推测，由于鲸鱼的气孔进化并最终移到了头部的正中，所以掌管嗅觉的神经纤维几乎全部不见了。同样，尽管有些鲸鱼也有味蕾，但这些味觉器官要么已经退化，要么就根本没有发育。
The sense of touch has sometimes been described as weak too, but this view is probably Trainers of captive dolphins and small whales often remark on their animals’ responsiveness to being touched or rubbed, and both captive and free-ranging cetacean individuals of all species (particularly adults and calves, or members of the same subgroup) appear to make frequent This contact may help to maintain order within a group, and stroking or touching are part of the courtship ritual in most The area around the blowhole is also particularly sensitive and captive animals often object strongly to being touched
有人认为鲸鱼的触觉也不发达，不过这个观点很可能是错误的。训练人工饲养海豚和小鲸鱼的人常常会评论他们的小动物对于触碰和抚摩的敏感度。而无论是人工饲养还是放养，几乎所有种类的鲸鱼个体之间都会进行频繁的接触，特别是在成年鲸鱼和幼鲸之间或同一亚群的成员之间。这种接触有助于维护同一种群内部的秩序，而且对大多数鲸鱼而言，抚摸和触碰也是求偶仪式的一部分。气孔周围的部分尤其敏感，一旦被触碰，人工饲养的鲸鱼就会有激烈的反应。
The sense of vision is developed to different degree in different Baleen species studied at close quarters underwater — specifically a grey whale calf in captivity for a year, and free-ranging right whale and humpback whales studied and filmed off Argentina and Hawaii — have obviously tracked objects with vision underwater, and they can apparently see moderately well both in water and in However, the position of the eyes so restricts the field of vision in baleen whales that they probably do not have stereoscopic
不同种类的鲸鱼，视觉发达程度也各不相同。通过研究一只被人工饲养了一年的小灰鲸，以及通过对阿根廷和夏威夷沿海所放养的露脊鲸和座头鲸的研究及拍摄，人们发现在封闭水域中的须鲸显然可以利用视觉来追踪水下的物体，而且它们无论在水中或空气中视力都相当好。但是眼睛的位置如此严重地限制了须鲸的视野，以致于它们可能不具备立体视觉。
On the other hand, the position of the eyes in most dolphins and porpoises suggests that they have stereoscopic vision forward and Eye position in freshwater dolphins, which often swim on their side or upside down while feeding, suggests that what vision they have is stereoscopic forward and By comparison, the bottlenose dolphin has extremely keen vision in Judging from the way it watches and tracks airborne flying fish, it can apparently see fairly well through the air-water interface as And although preliminary experimental evidence suggests that their in-air vision is poor, the accuracy with which dolphins leap high to take small fish out of a trainer’s hand provides anecdotal evidence to the
从另一方面来看，大多数海豚和江豚眼睛的位置表明它们是拥有向前及向下的立体视觉的。淡水海豚经常侧游，或是在吃东西的时候肚皮朝上游泳，这就表明眼睛的位置使它们拥有向前及向上的立体视觉。相反的是，宽吻海豚在水中视力就很敏锐，而从它观察及追踪空中飞鱼的方式来看，它在水天交界面的视力也相当好。尽管之前的实验证据表明，海豚在露天环境中可能是睁眼瞎，然而，它们能够从水中跃起很髙，并且能够准确地吃到训练员手中的小鱼，这就有趣地证明了上述观点是错误的。
Such variation can no doubt be explained with reference to the habitats in which individual species have For example, vision is obviously more useful to species inhabiting clear open waters than to those living in turbid rivers and flooded The South American boutu and Chinese Beiji, for instance, appear to have very limited vision, and the Indian susus are blind, their eyes reduced to slits that probably allow them to sense only the direction and intensity of
当然，这些变异可以通过这些品种所生长的环境来解释。比如说，对于宽广清澈水域中的鲸鱼来说，视觉显然就有用的多;而对于那些住在混浊的河流或水淹的平原上的品种来说，视力显然就没什么大用。比如，南美洲亚马逊河中的江豚以及中国的白鳍啄视力都相当有限，而印度河中的江豚根本看不见东西，它们的眼睛已经退化成了两条窄缝，除了感知一下方向和光的强度几乎没什么作用。
Although the senses of taste and smell appear to have deteriorated, and vision in water appears to be uncertain, such weaknesses are more than compensated for by cetaceans’ well-developed acoustic Most species are highly vocal, although they vary in the range of sounds they produce, and many forage for food using Large baleen whales primarily use the lower frequencies and are often limited in their Notable exceptions are the nearly song-like choruses of bowhead whales in summer and the complex, haunting utterances of the humpback Toothed species in general employ more of the frequency spectrum, and produce a wider variety of sounds, than baleen species (though the sperm whale apparently produces a monotonous series of high-energy clicks and little else). Some of the more complicated sounds are clearly communicative, although what role they may play in the social life and ‘culture’ of cetaceans has been more the subject of wild speculation than of solid
尽管鲸鱼们的味觉和嗅觉严重衰退，在水中的视觉又不那么确定，然而这些缺陷完全可以被它们那高度发迖的听觉系统所弥补。尽管鲸鱼们音域不同，但是大多数鲸鱼都很会“唱歌”，而且还能用回声定位法来觅食。大个子须鲸只能用低频发声，除此之外就黔“鲸”计穷了。当然也有些著名的例外：比如夏天里北极露脊鲸歌曲般的合唱，还有座头鲸那复杂的、令人难以忘怀的低语。与须鲸相比，齿鲸们可以更多地利用频谱，发出多种声音，当然，抹香鲸只会发出一系列单调激烈的喀哒声。有些复杂的声音显然具有交流作用，然而想要搞清楚它们在鲸鱼的社会生活及文化中到底起何作用，与其说是严谨科学研究的对象，不如说是丰富想像力的结果。
Passage3
参考译文
Visual Symbols and the Blind
盲人与视觉符号
Part 1
From a number of recent studies, it has become clear that blind people can appreciate the use of outlines and perspectives to describe the arrangement of objects and other surfaces in But pictures are more than literal This fact was drawn to my attention dramatically when a blind woman in one of my investigations decided on her own initiative to draw a wheel as it was To show this motion, she traced a curve inside the circle ( 1). I was taken Lines of motion, such as the one she used, are a very recent invention in the history of Indeed, as art scholar David Kunzle notes, Wilhelm Busch, a trend-setting nineteenth-century cartoonist, used virtually no motion lines in his popular figures until about
第一部分
最近的几次研究表明，盲人可以理解用轮廓线和透视法来描述物体排列及空间平面的方法。但是，图画不只是表面意思的体现。在研究中，一名盲人女性自发地画出了一个转动的车轮，这就引起了我对上述事实的极大关注。为了展示这样一个动作，她在圆圈中画了一条曲线(见图1)。我大吃一惊。像她所使用的这种运动线是插图史上最近的发明。实际上，正如艺术学者David Kunzle指出的那样，Wilhelm Busch，一名引领潮流的19世纪卡通画家，直到1877年才开始在其最流行的人物身上使用运动线。
When I asked several other blind study subjects to draw a spinning wheel, one particularly clever rendition appeared repeatedly: several subjects showed the wheel’s spokes as curved When asked about these curves, they all described them as metaphorical ways of suggesting Majority rule would argue that this device somehow indicated motion very But was it a better indicator than, say, broken or wavy lines — or any other kind of line, for that matter? The answer was not So I decided to test whether various lines of motion were apt ways of showing movement or if they were merely idiosyncratic Moreover, I wanted to discover whether there were differences in how the blind and the sighted interpreted lines of
当我要其他接受研究的盲人对象画出转动中的车轮时，一种特别聪明的画法反复出现了：几个人把车条画成了曲线。当被问到为什么要用曲线的时候，他们都说这是喑示运动的一种带有隐喻意味的方法。多数原则会认为从某种角度来讲，这个图案充分地表示了运动。但是就此而言，曲线是不是比，比如说虛线，波浪线或者其他任何一种线条，更能说明问题呢?答案是不确定的。所以我决定测试一下，不同的运动线是否就是表现运动的恰当方式，而或它们只是一些特殊的符号而已。进一步而言，我还想找出盲人和普通人在诠释运动线时的不同之处。
To search out these answers, I created raised-line drawings of five different wheels, depicting spokes with lines that curved, bent, waved, dashed and extended beyond the perimeter of the I then asked eighteen blind volunteers to feel the wheels and assign one of the following motions to each wheel: wobbling, spinning fast, spinning steadily, jerking or My control group consisted of eighteen sighted undergraduates from the University of
为了找出答案，我用凸起线条做出了五幅有关轮子的画，车条被画成大曲线，小曲线，波浪线，虚线以及超出车轮的直线。然后，我让18名盲人志愿者抚摩这些轮子，并且将它们分别与下列运动中的一个搭配：不稳定地转动，飞速转动，稳定地转动，颠簸和刹车。参照组则是由来自于多伦多大学的18名普通大学生组成的。
All but one of the blind subjects assigned distinctive motions to each Most guessed that the curved spokes indicated that the wheel was spinning steadily; the wavy spokes, they thought, suggested that the wheel was wobbling; and the bent spokes were taken as a sign that the wheel was Subjects assumed that spokes extending beyond the wheel’s perimeter signified that the wheel had its brakes on and that dashed spokes indicated the wheel was spinning
除了一个人，其他所有的盲人都将具体的动作与车轮搭配了起来。大多数人猜测被画成大曲线的车条表示车轮正在稳定地转动;而他们认为波浪线车条表示车轮在不稳定地转动，小曲线则被认为是车轮正在颠簸的象征。受试者推测，超出车轮边缘的车条代表车轮正处在刹车状态，而虚线车条则说明车轮正在飞快地旋转。
In addition, the favoured description for the sighted was the favoured description for the blind in every What is more, the consensus among the sighted was barely higher than that among the Because motion devices are unfamiliar to the blind, the task I gave them involved some problem Evidently, however, the blind not only figured out meanings for each line of motion, but as a group they generally came up with the same meaning at least as frequently as did sighted
另外，在毎种情况下，普通人喜爱的表达与盲人喜爱的基本一致。更有甚者，盲人之间的共识几乎与普通人的一样高。因为盲人不熟悉运动装置，因此这个任务对他们而言相当困难。然而，很明显，盲人不仅能够搞清楚每种运动线所代表的意义，而且作为一个团队，他们达成共识的频率也不比普通人低。
Part 2
We have found that the blind understand other kinds of visual metaphors as One blind woman drew a picture of a child inside a heart — choosing that symbol, she said, to show that love surrounded the With Chang Hong Liu, a doctoral student from China, I have begun exploring how well blind people understand the symbolism behind shapes such as hearts that do not directly represent their
第二部分
我们还发现盲人同样可以理解其他的视觉隐喻。有个盲人女性在心形中画了个小孩儿——她说选择心形是为了表示这个孩子周围充满了爱。于是，我和刘长虹，一名来自中国的博士生，开始探索盲人对如心形这样含义不直白的图形的象征意义，到底理解到了何种程度。
We gave a list of twenty pairs of words to sighted subjects and asked them to pick from each pair the term that best related to a circle and the term that best related to a For example, we asked: What goes with soft? A circle or a square? Which shape goes with hard?
我们给普通受试者一张有二十对词的单子，并且要求他们从每一对词当中挑一个最能代表圆形的词以及一个最能代表方形的词。举个例子，我们会问：“哪个形状和柔软有关?圆形还是方形?哪个形状表示坚硬?”
All our subjects deemed the circle soft and the square A full 94% ascribed happy to the circle, instead of But other pairs revealed less agreement: 79% matched fast to slow and weak to strong, And only 51% linked deep to circle and shallow to (See ) When we tested four totally blind volunteers using the same list, we found that their choices closely resembled those made by the sighted One man, who had been blind since birth, scored extremely He made only one match differing from the consensus, assigning ‘far’ to square and ‘near’ to In fact, only a small majority of sighted subjects — 53% — had paired far and near to the opposite Thus, we concluded that the blind interpret abstract shapes as sighted people
所有的受试者都认为圆形代表柔软，方形代表坚硬。高达94%的人将快乐归给了圆形，而没有选悲伤。但是在其他词组上，不同意见就出现了：79%的人分别认为圆是快的而方是慢的，圆是弱的而方是强的。只有51%的人将深与圆形相连，将浅与方形相连(见图2)。当我们用同样的单子去测试四个完全失明的人时，他们的选择几乎与普通受试者的一模一样。有个先天失明的人做得极好。他的选择只有一个与众不同，那就是把“远”与方形联系起来而把“近”同圆形联系起来。实际上，也只有刚刚过半53%的普通受试者认为圆形代表远，而方形代表近。因此，我们可以得出结论，盲人同普通人一样能够理解抽象的图形。
阅读答案及翻译原文 第5篇
Passage1
参考译文
How much higher? How much faster?
—Limits to human sporting performance are not yet in sight—
多高?多快?
——人类的运动极限没有尽头
Since the early years of the twentieth century, when the International Athletic Federation began keeping records, there has been a steady improvement in how fast athletes run, how high they jump and how far they are able to hurl massive objects, themselves included, through For the so-called power events — that require a relatively brief, explosive release of energy, like the 100-metre sprint and the long jump — times and distances have improved ten to twenty per In the endurance events the results have been more At the 1908 Olympics, John Hayes of the team ran a marathon in a time of In 1999, Morocco’s Khalid Khannouchi set a new world record of 2:05:42, almost thirty per cent
自从20世纪早期国际田联开始记录成绩以来，运动员奔跑的速度，跳的高度，投掷重物的距离都在稳步提髙。在那些需要爆发力的项目，比如100米跑和跳远项目中，时间和距离都提高了10%-20%。在耐力项目中，运动成绩提高得更多。1908年的奥运会上，美国队的约翰?海因跑出了2小时55分18秒的马拉松成绩。在1999年，摩洛哥的选手海耶斯以2小时05分42秒的成绩创造了新的世界记录，几乎提高了30%。
No one theory can explain improvements in performance, but the most important factor has been ‘The athlete must choose his parents carefully,’ says Jesus Dapena, a sports scientist at Indiana University, invoking an oftcited Over the past century, the composition of the human gene pool has not changed appreciably, but with increasing global participation in athletics — and greater rewards to tempt athletes — it is more likely that individuals possessing the unique complement of genes for athletic performance can be identified ‘Was there someone like [sprinter] Michael Johnson in the 1920s?’ Dapena ‘I’m sure there was, but his talent was probably never ’
没有任何一个人的理论可以解释成绩的提高，但是最重要的因素是基因。印第安纳大学的运动科学家Jesus Dapena援引一常用谚语说“运动员必须小心选择自己的父母。”在过去的一个世纪里，人类基因库的成分并没有显著地变化，只是全世界有越来越多的人参与了这项运动，诱惑运动员提髙成绩的物质奖励也越来越多，因此现在比以往更有可能尽早发现那些独具运动员基因的个体。Dapena问道：“在20世纪20年代，能找到像短跑运动员迈克?杰克逊一样的人吗?我敢肯定是能的，只是人们从未意识到他身上具有的才能。”
Identifying genetically talented individuals is only the first Michael Yessis, an emeritus professor of Sports Science at California State University at Fullerton, maintains that ‘genetics only determines about one third of what an athlete can But with the right training we can go much further with that one third than we’ve been ’ Yessis believes that runners, despite their impressive achievements, are ‘running on their genetics’. By applying more scientific methods, ‘they’re going to go much faster’. These methods include strength training that duplicates what they are doing in their running events as well as plyometrics, a technique pioneered in the former Soviet
识别基因优秀的个体只是第一步。加州大学FuUerton分校的运动科学系的退休教授Michael Yessis认为基因在运动员的表现上只起三分之一的作用。但是，辅以正确的训练，我们可以做得更好。他认为美国的赛跑选手尽管已取得了众多骄人成绩，但他们是“靠他们的基因在跑”。通过使用更多的科学训练方法，“他们将跑得更快”。这些方法包括力量训练。这些训练再现运动员在比赛中的动作，并应用了前苏联首先使用的一种训练技巧——增强式训练模式。
Whereas most exercises are designed to build up strength or endurance, plyometrics focuses on increasing power — the rate at which an athlete can expend When a sprinter runs, Yessis explains, her foot stays in contact with the ground for just under a tenth of a second, half of which is devoted to landing and the other half to pushing Plyometric exercises help athletes make the best use of this brief
虽然绝大多数的训练用来提高力量或者持久性，增强式训练注重提高力——即运动员使用能量的速度。Yessis解释到，在一个短跑运动员跑步时，她的脚和地面接触少于1/10秒，在这1/10秒中，一半的时间用于着地，另一半的时间用于蹬地。增强式训练能帮助运动员最好地利用这一短暂的间隙。
Nutrition is another area that sports trainers have failed to address ‘Many athletes are not getting the best nutrition, even through supplements,’ Yessis Each activity has its own nutritional Few coaches, for instance, understand how deficiencies in trace minerals can lead to
营养是另一个没有得到运动教练足够重视的方面。Yessis坚称，即使吃了补品，很多运动员也没有得到最好的营养。毎一项活动都有自己的营养需求。到目前为止，几乎没有教练懂得微量矿物质的缺乏是怎样使运动员受伤的。
Focused training will also play a role in enabling records to be ‘If we applied the Russian training model to some of the outstanding runners we have in this country,’ Yessis asserts, ‘they would be breaking records left and ’ He will not predict by how much, however: ‘Exactly what the limits are it’s hard to say, but there will be increases even if only by hundredths of a second, as long as our training continues to ’
在打破记录方面，集中训练也起了作用。Yessis断言：“如果对我们国内的一些杰出赛跑运动员采取俄罗斯的训练模式，他们将会经常破记录。”但是，他没有预测能在多大程度上破记录。“实际上极限在什么地方是很难说的，但是只要我们的训练不断增强，就会有提高，哪怕只有1/100秒。”
One of the most important new methodologies is biomechanics, the study of the body in A biomechanic films an athlete in action and then digitizes her performance, recording the motion of every joint and limb in three By applying Newton’s laws to these motions, ‘we can say that this athlete’s run is not fast enough; that this one is not using his arms strongly enough during take-off,’ says Dapena, who uses these methods to help high To date, however, biomechanics has made only a small difference to athletic
最重要的新方法之一就是生物力学，研究运动中身体的学科。生物力学将一个在运动中的运动员拍下来，然后将她的表现资料数字化，在三维空间上记录下每一个关节和肢体的运动。通过在三维空间采用牛顿定律，“我们可以得出结论：这个运动员的奔跑速度不够快，在起跑的过程中并没有强有力地使用胳膊，”Dapena说道。Dapena用这些方法帮助跳高运动员。然而，到目前为止，生物力学对运动员的进步起到的作用不大。
Revolutionary ideas still come from the athletes For example, during the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City, a relatively unknown high jumper named Dick Fosbury won the gold by going over the bar backwards, in complete contradiction of all the received high-jumping wisdom, a move instantly dubbed the Fosbury Fosbury himself did not know what he was That understanding took the later analysis of biomechanics specialists, who put their minds to comprehending something that was too complex and unorthodox ever to have been invented through their own mathematical Fosbury also required another element that lies behind many improvements in athletic performance: an innovation in athletic In Fosbury’s case, it was the cushions that jumpers land Traditionally, high jumpers would land in pits filled with But by Fosbury’s time, sawdust pits had been replaced by soft foam cushions, ideal for
革命性的观点同样还来自运动员自己。比如，在1968年墨西哥城的奥运会上，一个相对来说不是很出名的运动员迪克?F，使用了一个向后跳跃的方法获得了金牌，他的这个方法和当时已有的跳髙方法完全不同，马上被命名为F式落法(既背越式)。他本人并不知道他正在做什么。生物力学专家后来对他的方法进行了分析，并理解了这一方法。这些专家绞尽脑汁去理解这种过于复杂和非传统的方法，而这一方法在他们自己的数学模拟中都没有出现过。F式落法还需要另一个条件来提高运动员的成绩：运动装备上的革新。在迪克?F例子中，这一元素正是运动员着陆的垫子。传统意义上，跳髙运动员都会着陆在填满木屑的深坑里。但是到了迪克?F的年代，填满木屑的深坑被软泡沫垫子代替了，而这种垫子是这种跳法再理想不过的装备了。
In the end, most people who examine human performance are humbled by the resourcefulness of athletes and the powers of the human ‘Once you study athletics, you learn that it’s a vexingly complex issue,’ says John Raglin, a sports psychologist at Indiana ‘Core performance is not a simple or mundane thing of higher, faster, So many variables enter into the equation, and our understanding in many cases is We"ve got a long way to ’ For the foreseeable future, records will be made to be
终于，大多数研究人员被运动员的充沛的体力和人类身体的力量所折服了。“一旦你开始研究运动，你就会发现这是一个令人懊恼的复杂的问题/印第安纳大学的运动心理学家John Raglin说：“不是简简单单的更高，更快，更强就可以提髙核心成绩的。有很多的变量要引入这一方程式，我们对很多情况的理解都是最基本的。我们还有很长的路要走。”在可预见的将来，记录将被打破。
Passage2
参考译文
THE NATURE AND AIMS OF ARCHAEOLOGY
考古学的本质和目的
Archaeology is partly the discovery of the treasures of the past, partly the careful work of the scientific analyst, partly the exercise of the creative It is toiling in the sun on an excavation in the Middle East, it is working with living Inuit in the snows of Alaska, and it is investigating the sewers of Roman But it is also the painstaking task of interpretation, so that we come to understand what these things mean for the human And it is the conservation of the world’s cultural heritage against looting and careless
考古学部分是对过去财富的发现，部分是科学分析的严谨工作，部分是创造性想像的练习。同时也是在阳光下辛苦地在中东挖掘，在雪中的阿拉斯加和因纽特人一起工作，研究罗马大不列颠的下水道。但是它也是辛苦解释工作，以使我们理解在人类历史中这些东西代表了什么。它保持了世界文化遗产，使之免受掠夺和疏忽的伤害。
Archaeology, then, is both a physical activity out in the field, and an intellectual pursuit in the study or That is part of its great The rich mixture of danger and detective work has also made it the perfect vehicle for fiction writers and film-makers, from Agatha Christie with Murder in Mesopotamia to Stephen Spielberg with Indiana However far from reality such portrayals are, they capture the essential truth that archaeology is an exciting quest — the quest for knowledge about ourselves and our
考古学既是一个在田野的体力活动，也是在书房或实验室的智力追求。这正是它的巨大吸引力的一部分。这种充满了危险和侦探性质的工作的混合体是小说作家和电影导演的完美载体，从阿加莎?克里斯蒂的《东方快车谋杀案》到斯蒂芬?斯皮尔伯格的《夺宝奇兵》。虽然这些描述和现实差距甚远，但是它们抓住了最本质的事实：考古学是一个令人激动的探询，一个对关于我们自身和过去知识的探询。
But how does archaeology relate to disciplines such as anthropology and history, that are also concerned with the human story? Is archaeology itself a science? And what are the responsibilities of the archaeologist in today’s world?
但是考古学是怎样和诸如人类学和历史学这样的学科相联系呢，这些学科也同样研究人类历史?考古学本身是一门科学吗?考古学家在今天低界中的责任是什么?
Anthropology, at its broadest, is the study of humanity — our physical characteristics as animals and our unique non-biological characteristics that we call Culture in this sense includes what the anthropologist, Edward Tylor, summarised in 1871 as ‘knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’. Anthropologists also use the term ‘culture’ in a more restricted sense when they refer to the ‘culture’ of a particular society, meaning the non-biological characteristics unique to that society, which distinguish it from other Anthropology is thus a broad discipline — so broad that it is generally broken down into three smaller disciplines: physical anthropology, cultural anthropology and
最广义的人类学是研究人类的科学，包括我们作为动物的身体特征以及被我们称为文化的人类特有的非生物特征。在这种意义上的文化包括了人类学家爱德华?泰勒在1871年总结的“作为社会成员的个体所习得的包括知识、信仰、艺术，道德、习俗以及其他一切能力和习惯。”而当人类学家谈到某个特定社会的文化时，这个文化就是狭义的概念，指这个社会的独特的非生物特征，这一特征使该社会区别于其他社会。人类学是一个非常宽泛的学科，通常分为三个更小的学科：体质人类学、文化人类学和考古学。
Physical anthropology, or biological anthropology as it is also called, concerns the study of human biological or physical characteristics and how they Cultural anthropology — or social anthropology — analyses human culture and Two of its branches are ethnography (the study at first hand of individual living cultures) and ethnology (which sets out to compare cultures using ethnographic evidence to derive general principles about human society).
体质人类学或者生物人类学，正如其名字一样，关注于人类生物或体质特征的研究以及这些特征是怎样发展的。文化人类学或者社会人类学分析人类文化和社会。它的两个分支是人种志(对单个活文化的第一手研究)和民族学(从人种出发，比较各不同文化，得出关于人类社会的通用法则)。
Archaeology is the ‘past tense of cultural anthropology’. Whereas cultural anthropologists will often base their conclusions on the experience of living within contemporary communities, archaeologists study past societies primarily through their material remains — the buildings, tools, and other artefacts that constitute what is known as the material culture left over from former
考古学是“文化人类学的过去时”。文化人类学家经常把他们的结论建立在目前社区的生活经历上，然而考古学家主要通过残存的物质研究过去社会——建筑、工具和其他人工制品，这些构成了过去社会留下來的物质文化。
Nevertheless, one of the most important tasks for the archaeologist today is to know how to interpret material culture in human How were those pots used? Why are some dwellings round and others square? Here the methods of archaeology and ethnography Archaeologists in recent decades have developed ‘ethnoarchaeology’, where, like ethnographers, they live among contemporary communities, but with the specific purpose of learning how such societies use material culture — how they make their tools and weapons, why they build their settlements where they do, and so Moreover, archaeology has an active role to play in the field of Heritage studies constitutes a developing field, where it is realised that the world’s cultural heritage is a diminishing resource which holds different meanings for different
然而，今天的考古学家最重要的任务之一就是知道如何解读从前的物质文化。那些罐子是怎么用的?为什么有些住所是圆形的，而有些是方形的?在这里，考古学和人种学的方法重合了。几十年来，考古学家延伸出了种族文化考古学，和人种学者一样，他们住在当代的社区中，但是他们带着特定的目的，就是要了解社会是如何使用物质文化的，比如人们是怎样制造工具和武器，人们为什么要在现在的地方建立住所，等等。而且，考古学在保护遗址方面起了积极的作用。传统研究构成了一个不断发展的领域，在这个领域里，人们认识到世界的文化遗产是一个正在减少的资源，这一资源对不同的人们有着不同的意义。
If, then, archaeology deals with the past, in what way does it differ from history? In the broadest sense, just as archaeology is an aspect of anthropology, so too is it a part of history — where we mean the whole history of humankind from its beginnings over three million years Indeed, for more than ninety-nine per cent of that huge span of time, archaeology — the study of past material culture — is the only significant source of Conventional historical sources begin only with the introduction of written records around 3,000 BC in western Asia, and much later in most other parts of the
如果考古学只研究过去，那么它有什么是区别于历史学的呢?就最广义的意义而言，考古学是人类学的一个方面，同时也是历史学的一部分，在这里的历史是指3百万年前人类产生以来的所有人类历史。实际上，在那段漫长的岁月里，超过99%的时间，考古学这一研究过去的物质文化的学科是惟一有意义的信息资源。传统的历史始于公元前3000左右西亚的文字记载，而世界的其他大多数地区的历史要比这晚很多。
A commonly drawn distinction is between pre-history, the period before written records — and history in the narrow sense, meaning the study of the past using written To archaeology, which studies all cultures and periods, whether with or without writing, the distinction between history and pre-history is a convenient dividing line that recognises the importance of the written word, but in no way lessens the importance of the useful information contained in oral
人们一般是这样把人类的历史一分为二的：史前(即文字记录出现以前的时期)和狭义的历史即有文字见证的这段历史。对于研究所有文化和所有时期的考古学而言，不管有没有文字，历史和史前的区别只是承认文字重要性的传统分界线，绝不会减少包含在口述史中有用信息的重要性。
Since the aim of archaeology is the understanding of humankind, it is a humanistic study, and since it deals with the human past, it is a historical But it differs from the study of written history in a fundamental The material the archaeologist finds does not tell us directly what to Historical records make statements, offer opinions and pass The objects the archaeologists discover, on the other hand, tell us nothing directly in In this respect, the practice of the archaeologist is rather like that of the scientist, who collects data, conducts experiments, formulates a hypothesis, tests the hypothesis against more data, and then, in conclusion, devises a model that seems best to summarise the pattern observed in the The archaeologist has to develop a picture of the past, just as the scientist has to develop a coherent view of the natural
由于考古学的目的是理解人类，所以它是一个人文主义的学科。而且，由于考古学研究的是人类的过去，所以它是一个有关历史的学科，但是它在根本上区别于文字历史的研究。考古学家发现的物质不会直接告诉我们去思考什么。历史记载是一种声明，意见及评判。在另一方面，考古学家发现的物体本身并未直接吿诉我们什么。从这个角度来说，考古学家的实践更像科学家的实践。科学家收集数据，进行实验，提出假设，用更多的数据验证假设，然后得出结论，设计模型，而这一模型看起来最适合总结在数据中观察到的模式。而考古学家需要描画出关于过去的一幅图画，正如科学家需要建立一个关于自然世界的连贯的思维框架。
Passage3
参考译文
The Problem of Scarce Resources
稀缺资源的问题
Section A
The problem of how health-care resources should be allocated or apportioned, so that they are distributed in both the most just and most efficient way, is not a new Every health system in an economically developed society is faced with the need to decide (either formally or informally) what proportion of the community’s total resources should be spent on health-care; how resources are to be apportioned; what diseases and disabilities and which forms of treatment are to be given priority; which members of the community are to be given special consideration in respect of their health needs; and which forms of treatment are the most
A
卫生保健资源应该如何分配或指定以保证它们能以最公平、最有效的方式分布，这个问题已经不算新了。在经济发达的社会，每一个卫生系统都需要做出决定(正式或非正式)：在卫生保健方面投入资源应占社会全部资源的多大比例?这些资源应该如何分配?什么样的疾病和残疾以及什么形式的治疗应该享有优先权?社会中的哪部分成员应该在卫生需求方面给予特别关照?什么形式的治疗是最节省成本的?
Section B
What is new is that, from the 1950s onwards, there have been certain general changes in outlook about the finitude of resources as a whole and of health-care resources in particular, as well as more specific changes regarding the clientele of health-care resources and the cost to the community of those Thus, in the 1950s and 1960s, there emerged an awareness in Western societies that resources for the provision of fossil fuel energy were finite and exhaustible and that the capacity of nature or the environment to sustain economic development and population was also In other words, we became aware of the obvious fact that there were ‘limits to growth’. The new consciousness that there were also severe limits to health-care resources was part of this general revelation of the Looking back, it now seems quite incredible that in the national health systems that emerged in many countries in the years immediately after the 1939-45 World War, it was assumed without question that all the basic health needs of any community could be satisfied, at least in principle; the ‘invisible hand’ of economic progress would
B
新近的发展是，自20世纪50年代以来，人们看待资源有限性及卫生资源有限性的态度都有了总体的改变，另外关于使用卫生资源的用户和社区所需做出的开支方面也有了具体的变化。在20世纪50年代和60年代，西方社会意识到：化石燃料能源的供应资源是有限的，并能被耗尽，自然界或环境维持经济发展和人口增长的能力也是有限的。换句话说，我们开始意识到一个显而易见的事实，就是增长是有限制的。卫生保健资源同样也会有一些限制的新观念就是这个显而易见的亊实的一部分。回溯起来，有一个观点现在看来不可思议：在1939年到1945年的世界大战结束后的几年内，很多国家建立了国民卫生体系，人们认为这样的国民卫生体系至少在理论上能够满足任何人群的所有基础卫生需求，经济增长中“看不见的手”将提供一切所需。
Section C
However, at exactly the same time as this new realisation of the finite character of health-care resources was sinking in, an awareness of a contrary kind was developing in Western societies: that people have a basic right to health-care as a necessary condition of a proper human Like education, political and legal processes and institutions, public order, communication, transport and money supply, health-care came to be seen as one of the fundamental social facilities necessary for people to exercise their other rights as autonomous human People are not in a position to exercise personal liberty and to be self-determining if they are poverty-stricken, or deprived of basic education, or do not live within a context of law and In the same way, basic health-care is a condition of the exercise of
C
然而，就在这种认为卫生资源是有限的新思想销声匿迹的同时，一种相反的思想在西方社会发展起来了。这种思想认为享受卫生保健是人们的一项基本权利，而这种权利是人们正常生活的必要条件。像教育、政治程序、法律程序、机构、公共秩序、沟通、交通和金钱供给一样，卫生保健被看作是人们行使作为自治人类的权利的必需的一项基本社会的设施。如果为贫穷而苦恼，或者被剥夺了基础教育，或者没有生活在法律法规的框架下，那么人们就不能拥有个人自由，自主行事。同样，基础卫生保健也是人实现自由的一个条件。
Section D
Although the language of ‘rights’ sometimes leads to confusion, by the late 1970s it was recognised in most societies that people have a right to health-care (though there has been considerable resistance in the United States to the idea that there is a formal right to health-care). It is also accepted that this right generates an obligation or duty for the state to ensure that adequate health-care resources are provided out of the public The state has no obligation to provide a health-care system itself, but to ensure that such a system is Put another way, basic health-care is now recognised as a ‘public good’, rather than a ‘private good’ that one is expected to buy for As the 1976 declaration of the World Health Organisation put it: ‘The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social ’ As has just been remarked, in a liberal society basic health is seen as one of the indispensable conditions for the exercise of personal
D
虽然权利这个词有时在语言上会混淆，但是到20世纪70年代晚期，大多数社会都承认人们有享受卫生保健的权利(虽然在美国，人们享有卫生保健的正式权利这一观点受到了相当大的抵触)。还有一个观点也是被普遍接受的：这种权利使得国家有义务有责任确保从公共预算中划拨足够的资金提供卫生服务。国家本身没有义务去建立卫生健康体系，但是有义务去保证这样一个体系的存在。换句话说，基础卫生保健是一种公共产品，而不是需要花钱去购买的私人产品。世界卫生组织在1976年的宣言中写道;“享受可能达到的最髙标准的健康是每一个人的基本权利，不因种族、宗教、政治信仰、经济或社会情境而异。”正如刚才所提到的，在一个自由的社会，基础卫生是行使个人自治的一个必不可少的条件。
Section E
Just at the time when it became obvious that health-care resources could not possibly meet the demands being made upon them, people were demanding that their fundamental right to health-care be satisfied by the The second set of more specific changes that have led to the present concern about the distribution of health-care resources stems from the dramatic rise in health costs in most OECD1 countries, accompanied by large-scale demographic and social changes which have meant, to take one example, that elderly people are now major (and relatively very expensive) consumers of health-care Thus in OECD countries as a whole, health costs increased from % of GDP2 in 1960 to 7% of GDP in 1980, and it has been predicted that the proportion of health costs to GDP will continue to (In the US the current figure is about 12% of GDP, and in Australia about % of )
E
当卫生保健资源不能满足需求的这一现象比较明显的时候，人们要求国家满足他们享有卫生保健的这一基本权利。大规模的人口数量及社会的变化导致大多数经济合作发展组织的国家的卫生费用急剧增加，这再一次引发了一系列改变，使人们开始关注医疗卫生资源的分配问题。例如，老年人现在是最主要的(相对来说也是最昂贵的)卫生健康资源消费者。在欧共体总体中，健康资源的消费从I960年占GDP的%到1980年的7%,而且这一增长趋势将会持续。(在美国，目前的数字是占GDP的12%，澳大利亚是%)。
As a consequence, during the 1980s a kind of doomsday scenario (analogous to similar doomsday extrapolations about energy needs and fossil fuels or about population increases) was projected by health administrators, economists and In this scenario, ever-rising health costs were matched against static or declining
结果，在20世纪80年代在各国卫生部长、经济学家和政治家身中都出现了一股极度的悲观情绪(和以往人们的悲观推测类似，比如关于能源需求和燃料问题，或是人口增长问题)在这样的论调中，他们认为资源是稳定的或是减少的，而医疗费用却是不断上涨的。
阅读答案及翻译原文 第6篇
定公以孔子为中都宰，一年，四方皆则之。由中都宰为司空，由司空为大司寇。
定公十年春，及齐平。夏，齐大夫黎鉏言于景公曰：“鲁用孔丘，其势危齐。”乃使使告鲁为好会，会于夹谷①。鲁定公且以乘车好往。孔子摄相事，曰：“臣闻有文事者必有武备，有武事者必有文备。古者诸侯出疆，必具官以从。请具左右司马。”定公曰：“诺。”具左右司马。会齐侯夹谷，
为坛位，土阶三等，以会遇之礼相见，揖让而登。献酬之礼毕，齐有司趋而进曰：“请奏四方之乐。”景公曰：“诺。”于是旍旄羽袚矛戟剑拨②鼓噪而至。孔子趋而进，历阶而登，不尽一等，举袂而言曰：“吾两君为好会，夷狄之乐何为于此！请命有司！”有司却之，不去，景公心怍，麾而去之。有顷，齐有司趋而进曰：“请奏宫中之乐。”景公曰：“诺。”优倡侏儒为戏而前。孔子趋而进，历阶而登，不尽一等，曰：“匹夫而营惑诸侯者罪当诛！请命有司！”有司加法焉，手足异处。景公惧而动，知义不若，归而大恐，告其群臣曰：“鲁以君子之道辅其君，而子独以夷狄之道教寡人，使得罪于鲁君，为之奈何？”有司进对曰：“君子有过则谢以质，小人有过则谢以文。君若悼之，则谢以质。”于是齐侯乃归所侵鲁之郓、汶阳、龟阴之田以谢过。
定公十三年夏，孔子言于定公曰：“臣无藏甲，大夫毋百雉之城。”使仲由为季氏宰，将堕③三都④。于是叔孙氏先堕郈。季氏将堕费，公山不狃、叔孙辄率费人袭鲁。公与三子入于季氏之宫，登武子之台。费人攻之，弗克，孔子命申句须、乐颀下伐之，费人北。国人追之，败诸姑蔑。二子奔齐，遂堕费。将堕成，公敛处父谓孟孙曰：“堕成，齐人必至于北门。且成，孟氏之保鄣，无成是无孟氏也。我将弗堕。”十二月，公围成，弗克。（选自《史记·孔子世家》，有删改）
【注】①夹谷：地名，春秋时齐地。②拨（fá)：大盾。③堕：毁坏；
拆毁。④三都：春秋鲁三桓执政，皆建城拟于国都。季孙之费、孟孙之成、叔孙之郈，称三都。
1.下列各句中加点词的解释，不正确的一项是(3分)
A.孔子摄相事摄：代理
B.孔子趋而进趋：小步快走
C.孔子命申句须、乐颀下伐之伐：夸耀
D.十二月，公围成，弗克克：攻下
2.以下六句话分别编为四组，全都正面表现孔子在夹谷扬礼节的一组是(3分)
①由中都宰为司空，由司空为大司寇
②以会遇之礼相见，揖让而登
③吾两君为好会,夷狄之乐何为于此！请命有司
④趋而进,历阶而登,不尽一等,举袂而言
⑤匹夫而营惑诸侯者罪当诛！请命有司
⑥君子有过则谢以质，小人有过则谢以文。君若悼之，则谢以质
A.①②⑤B.②③⑥
C.③④⑤D.①④⑥
3.下列对原文有关内容的分析和概括，不正确的.一项是(3分)
A.文章先从孔子任中都宰写起。他任职一年就很有政绩，鲁国各地的官员都纷纷效仿他。于是，他升为司空，后又升为大司寇。
B.文章写孔子严于礼法之行为使齐景公震憾而省悟，并以退还原来所占的鲁国之郓、汶阳、龟阴之地的行动来向鲁国赔罪。
C.定公十三年夏，鲁定公听从孔子的建议，打算拆毁季孙、叔孙、孟孙三家封邑的城墙，在拆毁的过程中，遇到了公山不狃等人的武力阻扰。
D.公敛处父认为，如果拆了成邑的城墙，那么齐人必将兵临城下，孟氏没有了保障，会处于危险中。于是，他坚决抗命不拆成邑的城墙。
答案：
1.C伐：攻打
2.C①句说的是孔子在鲁国受到重视而被屡次提拔；
②句说的是两国君主在夹谷见面的情景；
⑥句是齐国有司的话。
3.B.非“震憾”而是“惧怕”。
